Paul IV was born Gian Pietro Carafa in 1476, into a noble family from southern Italy. Long before becoming pope, he had acquired a reputation as an uncompromising reformer. He helped found the Theatine order in 1524 and later played a prominent part in the Roman Inquisition. For Carafa, strict discipline and resistance to heresy were essential to preserving the Catholic faith.

Elected pope in 1555 at an advanced age, he pursued these aims with determination. In 1559 his pontificate produced an exceptionally severe Index of Forbidden Books, restricting the circulation and reading of many works. His policies also struck the Jewish population: the 1555 bull Cum nimis absurdum imposed harsh restrictions and forced the Jews of Rome to live in an enclosed ghetto.

Paul IV was equally combative in politics, particularly in his opposition to Spanish influence in Italy. His policies led to bitter conflict, while certain relatives abused their positions. After his death in 1559, public anger at his rule erupted in Rome. He is remembered both as a determined advocate of Catholic reform and as a pope whose methods were marked by repression and religious